Ch. 25 The West and the
World: 1815-1914
·
The IR created a tremendously dynamic economic system in Brit, ERP,
then N.Am
·
In the course of the 19th c, the system was extended across
the face of the earth to non-Western areas
o
Some of the extension was peaceful and beneficial for all concerned,
for the West had many products and techniques the rest of the world desired
o
If peaceful methods failed, ERPNs used their superior military power to
force non-Western nations to open their doors to Western economic interests
·
IN general, Westerners fashioned the global economic system so that the
largest share of the increasing gains from trade, technology, and migration
flowed to the West and its propertied classes
The
Rise of Global Inequality
·
The IR in ERP marked a momentous turning point in human history
·
The regions of the world that industrialized in the 19th c
(ERP and N.Am) increased their wealth and power enormously in comparison to
those that did not.
·
A gap between the industrializing regions and the nonindustrializing
Third World regions (Africa, Asia, and Latin Am) opened up and grew steadily
throughout the 19th c
·
This pattern of uneven global development became institutionalized, or
built into the structure of the world economy
·
We evolved a “lopsided world,” a world of rich lands and poor
·
Recent studies
o
In 1750, the average standard of living was no higher in ERP as a whole
than in the rest of the world
o
It was industrialization that opened the gaps in average wealth and
well being among countries and regions
o
Income per person stagnated in the Third World before 1913, in striking
contrast to the industrializing regions
§ Only after 1945, did Third
World Countries finally make some economic progress beginning in their turn the
critical process of industrialization
·
The rise of enormous income disparities, and indicators of equal
disparities in food and clothing, health and education, life expectancy and
general material well-being has generated a deal of debate
o
One side tresses that the West used science, technology, capitalist
organization, and even its critical world view to create its wealth and greater
physical well-being
o
Another side argues the West used its political and economic power to
steal much o its riches, continuing in the 19th and 20th
c’s the colonialism born of the era of expansion
The
World Market
·
Commerce between nation stimulates economic development; so in the 19th
c, ERP directed an enormous increase in international commerce
o
Brit took the lead in cultivating export markets for its booming
industrial output, as Brit manufacturers looked first to ERP and then around
the world
·
Brit dominated in the export market
o
Textiles: By 1820 Brit was exporting 50% of its production
o
ERP bought 50% of these cotton textile exports, while India bought only
6%
o
As ERPN nations and the US erected protective tariff barriers and
promoted domestic industry, Brit cotton textile manufacturers aggressively
sought and found other foreign markets in non-Western Areas
o
By 1850 India was buying 25% of Brit’s textiles and ERP only 16%
o
As a Brit colony, India couldn’t raise tariffs to protects its ancient
cotton textile industry, and thousand of Indian weavers lost their livelihoods
·
Brit was also the world’s largest importer of goods
o
From repeal of Corn laws in 1846 to beginning of WWI in 1914, Brit
remained the world’s emporium, where agricultural products and raw materials
and manufactured goods entered freely
o
Free access to Brit’s market stimulated the development of mines and
plantations in many non-Western areas
·
International trade also grew as transportation systems improved
o
Wherever RRs were built, they drastically reduced transportation costs,
opened new economic opportunities, and called forth new skills and attitudes
o
Much of the RR construction in Latin Am, Asia, and Africa connected
seaports with inland cities and regions, as opposed to linking developing
cities and regions within the country
o
Should RRs dovetailed with Western economic interests, facilitating the
inflow and sale of Western manufactured goods and the export and development of
local raw materials
·
The power of steam revolutionized transportation by sea as well as by
land
o
Steam power began to supplant sails on the oceans of the world in the
late 1860s
o
Passenger and foreign rates tumbled as ship design became more
sophisticated, and the intercontinental shipment of low-priced raw materials
became feasible
o
The opening of the Suez and Panama Canals shortened global transport
time considerably
o
In addition, port facilities were modernized to make loading and
unloading cheaper, faster, and more dependable
·
Revolution in land and sea transportation encouraged EPRN entrepreneurs
to open up vast new territories around the world and develop agricultural
products and raw materials for sale in ERP
o
Improved transportation enabled Asia, Africa, and Latin Am to ship
traditional tropical products (spices, tea, sugar coffee) as well as new raw
materials for industry (jute, rubber, cotton, and coconut oil)
·
New communications systems directed the flow of goods across global
networks
o
Transoceanic telegraph cables inaugurated rapid communications among
the financial centers of the world
o
Communications network conveyed world commodity prices instantaneously
·
As their economies grew, ERPN began to make massive foreign investments
beginning about 1840
o
By the first outbreak of WWI in 1914, ERPNS had invested more than $40
billion abroad
o
Brit, France, and Germany were the principal investing countries
o
The great gap between rich and poor within ERP meant that the wealthy
and moderately well-to-do could and did send great sums abroad in search of
interest in dividends
·
Much of capital exported did not go to ERPN colonies or protectorates
in Asia and Africa
o
¾ of total ERPN investment went to other ERPN countries, the US, and
Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, and Latin Am
o
ERP found its most profitable opportunities for investments in
construction of RRs, ports, and utilities that were necessary to settle and
develop lands
o
By lending money for a foreign RR, ERPNs also enabled white settlers to
buy ERPN rails and locomotives and to develop sources of cheap food and raw
materials
o
Much of this investment was peaceful and mutually beneficial for
lenders and borrowers
o
Victims were Native Am’s and Australian aborigines who were decimated
by diseases, liquor, and weapons of an aggressively expanding Western society
The
Opening of China
·
ERP’s relatively peaceful development of robust offshoots in N Am,
Australia, and Latin Am absorbed huge quantities of goods, investments, and
migrants
o
Yet ERP’s economic and cultural penetration of old, densely populated
civilizations was also profoundly significant
o
With such civilizations, ERP increased their trade and profit, and were
prepared to use force if necessary to attain their desires
o
Happened in China – a pattern of intrusion into non-Western lands
·
Traditional Chinese civilization was self sufficient
o
For centuries, China had sent more goods and inventions to ERP than its
received, and this was still the case in 19th c
o
Trade w/ ERP was carefully regulated by Chinese imperial government
(Qing/Manchu Dynasty) which required all foreign merchants to live in the southern
port of Guangzhou/Canton and to buy and sell only to licensed Chinese merchants
o
Practices considered harmful to Chinese interests were strictly
forbidden
·
For years the little community of foreign merchants in Canton had to
accept the Chinese system
o
By 1820s, the dominant group, The Brit fought back
o
In the smoking of opium denounced by Chinese decrees, Brit merchants found
something the Chinese really wanted
o
Grown legally in Brit-occupied India, opium was smuggled into China
where its use and sale were illegal
o
Huge profits and growing addiction led to a rapid increase in sales
o
By 1836 the goal of Brit merchants in Canton was an indep Brit colony
in China and “safe and unrestricted liberty” in their Chinese trade
o
Spurred by economic motives, they pressured Brit gov to take decisive action
and enlisted support of other Brit manufacturers with visions of Chinese
markets opening
·
At same time, Qing gov decided that the opium trade had to be stamped
out
o
Was ruining the ppl and stripping the empire of silver that was going
to Brit merchants to pay for opium
o
Gov began to prosecute Chinese drug dealers vigorously
o
In 1839, sent envoy Lin Zexu
to Canton to deal with the crisis
§ Dealt harshly w/ Chinese who
bought opium and seized opium stores of Brit merchants, who then withdrew to
barren island of Hong Kong
§ Sent a letter justifying his
actions to Queen Victoria
·
“Responsible for the habits and morals of its subjects and cannot rest
content to see any of them become victims of a deadly poison”
·
Wealthy, well-connected Brit merchants appealed to their allies in
London for support, and Brit gov responded
o
Wanted free, unregulated trade with China as well as establishment of
diplomatic relations on ERPN model, with ambassadors, embassies, and published
treaties
o
Using troops from India and being in control of the seas, Brit occupied
several coastal cities and forced China to give into Brit demands
o
1842: Treaty of Nanking, the imperial gov was required to cede
the island of Hong Kong to Brit forever, and to pay an indemnity of $100 million,
and open up four large cities to unlimited foreign trade with low tariffs
·
With Brit’s new power over Chinese commerce, the opium trade
flourished, and Honk Kong developed rapidly as an Anglo-Chinese enclave
o
China continued to accept foreign diplomats in Beijing, the capital,
but disputes over trade between China and Western powers continued
o
Second round of foreign attack between 1856-1860, culminating in the
occupation of Beijing by 17,000 Brit and French troops and the international burning
of the emperor’s summer palace
o
Another round of harsh treaties gave ERPN merchants and missionaries
greater privileges and protection and forced the Chinese to accept trade and
investment on unfavorable terms for several more cities
·
ERPNs used military aggression to bow a hole in the wall of Chinese seclusion
and open the country to foreign trade and ideas
Japan
and the United States
·
Japan had its own highly distinctive civilization and even less use for
Westerners
·
ERPN traders and missionaries first arrived in Japan in the 16th
c
·
By 1640 Japan had reacted negatively to their presence – gov decided to
seal off the country from all ERPN influences in order to preserve traditional
Jap culture and society
·
When Am and Brit whaling ships began to appear off Jap coasts 200 yrs
later, the policy of exclusion was still in effect
·
An order of 1825 commanded Jap officials to “drive away foreign vessels
without second thought”
·
Jap’s unbending isolation seemed hostile and barbaric to the West,
especially the US
o
Complicated the practical problems of shipwrecked Am sailors and
provisioning of whaling ships and China traders sailing in eastern Pacific
o
Thwarted hope of trade and profit
o
Am’s shared the self-confidence and dynamism of expanding Western
society, and felt destined to play a great role in the Pacific
o
To Am’s it seemed the duty of the US to force the Japs to share their ports
and behave as a “civilized nation”
·
After unsuccessful Am attempts to establish commercial relations w/
Japan, Commodore Matthew Perry steamed
into Edo (now Tokyo) bay in 1853
o
Relied in gunboat diplomacy: use or threat of military force to coerce
a gov into economic or political agreements, and threatening to attack, Perry
demanded diplomatic negotiations with the emperor
·
Japan entered a crisis
o
Some Japs warriors urged resistance
o
Senior officials realized how defenseless their cities were against
naval bombardment
·
Shocked and humiliated, the Japs reluctantly signed a treaty with the
US that opened two ports and permitted trade
·
Over the next 5 years, more treaties spelled out the rights and
privileges of the Western nations and their merchants in Japan
·
Japan was “opened”
·
What the Brits did in China with war, the Am’s did in Japan with the
threat of war
Western
Penetration of Egypt
·
Egypt’s experience illustrates the explosive power of the expanding
ERPN economy an society as well as their seductive appeal
o
ERPN involvement in Egypt led to a new model of formal political
control, which EPRN powers applied widely in Africa and Asia after 1882
·
Of great importance in African and Middle Eastern history, Egpyt had
been ruled by a succession of foreigners, most recently by the Ottoman Turks
o
1798: French armies under NAP invaded the Egyptian part of the Ottoman Empire
and occupied the territory for 3 years
o
The power vacuum left by the French withdrawal stepped an extraordinary
Turkish general, Muhammad Ali
·
Muhammad Ali
o
First appointed gov of Egypt in 1805 by the Turkish sultan, MALI set
out to build his own state on the strength of a large, powerful army organized
along ERPN lines
o
Drafted for the first time the illiterate, despised peasant masses of
Egypt and hired French and Italian army officers to train these raw recruits
and their Turkish officers
o
Gov was reformed: new lands cultivated, communications improved
o
By the end of his reign in 1848, MALI had established a strong and virtually
indep Egyptian state, to be ruled by his family on a hereditary basis within
the Turkish Empire
·
MALI’s policies of modernization attracted large numbers of ERPN to the
banks of the Nile
o
Port city of Alexandria had more than 50,000 ERPNs by 1864
o
ERPNS served as army officers as well as engineers, doctors, gov
officials, and police officers
o
Other ERPNs turned to trade, finance, and shipping
·
To pay for his ambitious plans, MALI encouraged development of
commercial agriculture
o
This development had profound implications
o
Egyptian peasants were poor but largely self-sufficient, growing food
for their own consumption on state owned lands allotted to them by tradition
o
Faced with possibility of export agriculture, high ranking officials
and members of MALI’s fam began carving out large private landholding out of
the state domain
o
New landlords made peasants their tenants and forced them to grow cash
cps (cotton, rice) which were geared towards ERPN markets
o
Egyptian landowners “modernized” agriculture to the detriment of the peasant
well being
·
Trends continued under MALI’s grandson Ismail
o
1863: Began 16 year rule as Egypt’s khedive (prince)
o
Educated at France’s leading military academy, Ismail was a
westernizing autocrat
o
Large irrigation networks he promoted caused cotton production and
exports to ERP to boom
o
Suez Canal was completed by a French company in 1869
o
Arabic of the Turkish masses replaced the Turkish of the foreign
conquerors as the official language
o
Young Egyptians educated in ERP spread new skills
o
Cairo acquired modern blvds and Western hotels
o
Ismail: “My country is no longer in Africa, we now form part of Europe”
·
Ismail was too impatient and reckless
o
Projects enormously expensive
§ By 1876, Egypt owed foreign
bondholders a colossal debt that it could not pay
§ France and Brit intervened
and forced Ismail to appoint French and Brit commissioners to oversee Egyptian
finances so that the Egyptian debt would be paid in full
§ Marked a sharp break with
past: Throughout the 19th c, ERPNs used military might and political
force to make sure that non-Western lands would accept ERPN trade and
investment -- Now ERPNs were going to determine the state budget and
effectively rule Egypt
·
Foreign financial control evoked a violent nationalistic reaction among
Egyptian religious leaders, young intellectuals, and army officers
o
1879: Under leadership of Colonel
Ahmed Arabi, they formed the Egyptian Nationalist Party
§ Continuing diplomatic
pressure, which forced Ismail to abdicate in favor of his weak son Tewfiq, resulted in bloody anti-ERPN
riots in 1882
§ Number of ERPNs were killed,
and Tewfiq and his court had to flee to Brit ships for safety
§ Brit fleet bombarded
Alexandria, more riots swept the country, and Colonel Arabi led a revolt
§ But a Brit expeditionary force
put down the rebellion and occupied all of Egypt
·
The Brits said their occupation was temporary, but Brits remained in
Egypt until 1956
o
Maintained the facade of the khedive’s gov as an autonomous province of
the Ottoman Empire, but the khedive was a puppet to Brits
o
Brit rule did result in tax reforms and somewhat better conditions for
peasants, while foreign bondholders received their interest and Egyptian
nationalist nursed their injured pride
·
Brit rule in Egypt provided a new model for ERPN expansion in densely populated
lands
o
Such expansion as based on military force, political domination, and a
self justifying ideology of beneficial reform
o
Model was predominating until 1914
·
So ERP’s IR lead to tremendous political and economic expansion after
1880
The
Great Migration
·
Millions of ppl left ancestral lands in history’s greatest migrations
·
Opening of China and Egyptian debt had no significance for the millions
of ordinary people
·
Great migration movement was the central experience in saga of Western expansion
·
Because of this great migration: the mass movement of ppl from ERP in
the 19th c, the West’s impact on the world in the 19th c
was so powerful and many sided
The
Pressure of Population
·
In early 18th c, the growth of ERPN population entered its 3rd
and decisive state, which continued unabated until the 20th c
·
Birthrates declined in the 19th c as well as death rates due
to
o
Rising living standard
o
Revolution in medicine
·
Population of ERP more than doubled, from 188 million in 1800 to 432
mill in 1900
·
Figures underestimate ERP’s population explosion, between 1815-1932,
more than 60 mill ppl left ERP
o
Migrants went to the areas of ERPN settlement – N and S America, Australia,
New Zealand, and Siberia – where they contributed to a rapid growth in numbers
o
Since population grew more slowly in Africa and Asia than in ERP and
Americas, ERPNs and ppl of predominately ERPN origin jumped from 24% of world’s
population in 1800 to 38% in 1914
·
The growing number of ERPNs provided further impetus for Western
expansion, and was a driving force behind emigration
o
Rapid increase in numbers put pressure on the land and led to land
hunger and relative overpopulation in many areas
o
In most countries, migration increased 20 years after rapid growth in
population
§ Many children of baby boom
grew up and saw little available land/opportunities, thus migrated
o
Pattern was prevalent when rapid population increase predated extensive
industrial development, which offered the best long term hope of creating jobs
within the country and reducing poverty
o
Millions of country foil went abroad as well as to nearby cities in
search of work/economic opportunity
·
3 facts
o
Number of men and women who left ERP increased rapidly at end of 19th
c leading up to WWI
§ More than 11 mill left in
first decade of 20th c, 5x as much as in 1850
§ Outflow of migrants was a
clear defining characteristic of ERPN society for an entire period
o
Diff countries had very diff patterns of movement
§ Ppl left Brit and Ireland in
large numbers from 1840s on
·
Reflected rural poverty and movement of skilled industrial technicians
and preferences shown to Brit migrants in Brit Empire
·
1/3 of all ERPN migrants between 1840-1920 came from Brit Iles
§ German migration was diff
·
Grew irregularly after 1830; peaks in early 1850s and early 1880s
·
After, declined rapidly
·
Industrialization was providing adequate jobs at home
§ Italy
·
More and more Italians left the country up to 1914, reflecting severe
problems in Italian villages and relatively slow industrial growth
§ Migration patterns mirrored
social and economic conditions in the various ERPN countries and provinces
o
US did absorb the largest overall number of ERPN migrants, fewer than
half of all migrants went to the US
§ Asiatic Russia, Canada,
Argentina, Brazil, Australia, and New Zealand also attracted large numbers
§ Migrants accounted for a
larger proportion of Argentina, Brazil, and Canada than it did in the US
§ Common Am assumption that
ERPN migration meant to the US is inaccurate
European
Migrants
·
The ERPN migrant was generally an energetic small farmer or skilled
artisan trying hard to stay ahead of poverty
o
Not a desperately poor landless peasants or urban proletarian
o
These small peasant landowners and village craftsmen typically left ERP
because their traditional way of life was threatened by too little land, estate
agriculture, and cheap factory made goods
·
Determined to maintain or improve their status, migrants were a great
asset to the countries that received them
o
Doubly so because the vast majority were young and often unmarried
o
Came in the prime of life and were ready to work hard in the new land
·
Many ERPNs moved but remained within EPR, settling temporarily or
permanently in another EPRN country
o
Jews from e. ERP and peasants from Ireland migrated to Brit
o
Russians and Poles sought work in Germany
o
Latin ppl from Spain, Portugal, an Italy entered France
·
Many ERPNs were truly migrants as opposed to immigrants
o
Returned home after some time abroad
o
½ in Argentina; 1/3 in US eventually returned to their native land
·
Likelihood of repatriation varied greatly by nationality
o
Migrants from Balkans were much more likely to return to their
countries than ppl from Ireland and eastern ERPN Jews
o
Possibility of buying land in the old counry was of central importance
§ Ireland/England/Scotland:
land was tightly held by large, often absentee landowners, and little land was
available for purchase
§ Russia: Jews were forced to
live in Pale of Settlement and most Russian land was held by non Jews
§ For Irish farmers and
Russian Jews, migration was a once and for all departure
·
Mass movement of Italians
o
As late as 1880s, ¾ Italians depended on agriculture
o
With influx of cheap N. Am wheat, many small landowning peasants whose
standard of living was falling began to leave their country
o
Many went to the US, but before 1900, more went to Argentina and Brazil
·
Many Italians had no intention of settling abroad permanently
o
Some called themselves “swallows”: After harvesting their own wheat and
flax in Italy, they flew to Argentina to harvest wheat between Dec-April
o
Returning to Italy for the spring planting, they repeated this
exhausting process
o
Hard life, but frugal workers could save $250-$350, where Italian agricultural
workers earned less than $1 a day
·
Ties of family and friendship played a crucial role in movement of ppls
o
Many ppl from given province or village settled together in rural
enclaves or tightly knit urban neighborhoods
o
Very often a strong individ (businessman, religious leader) would blaze
the way and others would follow, forming a “migration chain”
·
Many landless young EPRN men and women were spurred to leave by a
spirit of revolt and indep
o
Sweden and Norway, Jewish Russia and Italy, these young ppl felt
frustrated by the small privileged classes, which often controlled church and gov
and resisted demands for change and greater opportunity
o
Many young Norwegian seconded the passionate cry of Norway’s national poet
Martinius Bjornson: “I will be
crushed and consumed if I stay”
o
Many young Jews agreed with spokesman of Kiev’s Jewish community
in1882, who summed up his congregations defiance of discrimination
·
For many, migration was a radical way to “get out from under”
·
Migration slowed down when the ppl won basic polit and social reforms,
such as right to vote, equality before the law, and social security
Asian
Migrants
·
Not all migration was from ERP
·
Substantial number of Chinese, Japanese, Indians, and Filipinos
responded to rural hardship with temporary or permanent migration
·
At least 3 mill Asians moved abroad before 1920
o
Most went s indentured laborers to work under difficult conditions on
plantations or in gold mines of Latin Am, southern Asia, Africa, California,
Hawaii, and Australia
o
White estate owners used Asians to replace or supplement blacks after
the suppression of the slave trade
§ In 1840s: strong demand for
field hands in Cuba, and Spanish gov actively recruited Chinese laborers
§ 1853-1873: more than 130,000
Chinese laborers went to Cuba
§ Maj spent their lives as
virtual slaves
§ Great landlords of Peru brought
more than 100,000 Chinese workers in the 19th c
§ Similar movements of Asians
elsewhere
·
Migration from Asia would have been bigger if planters and mine owners
in search of cheap labor had been able to hire as many Asian workers as they had
wished
o
Could not
o
Asians fled plantations and gold mines as soon as possible, seeking
greater opportunities in trade and towns
o
Came into conflict w/ local populations (Malaya, E. Africa, areas settled
by ERPNs)
o
ERPN settlers demanded a halt to Asian migrants
·
By 1880s, Am’s and Australians were building great white walls:
discriminatory laws designed to keep Asians out
·
Crucial factor in migrations before 1914: general policy of “whites
only” in the open lands of possible permanent settlement
·
This was part of Western dominance in increasingly lopsided world
·
Largely successful in monopolizing the best overseas opportunities, ERPNs
and pl of ERPN ancestry reaped the main benefits from the great migration
·
By 1913 ppl in Australia, Canada, and the US all had higher average
incomes than ppl in Brit, still ERP’s wealthiest nation
Western
Imperialism, 1880-1914
·
Expansion of Western society reached its apex between 1880 and 1914
·
The leading ERPN nations continued to send massive streams of migrants,
money, and manufactured goods around the world, and also rushed to
create/enlarge political empires abroad
·
Polit empire building contrasted with economic penetration of
Non-Western territories between 1816-1880
o
Left China and Japan “opened”, but politically indep
o
By contrast, the empires of the late 19th c recalled the old
ERPN colonial empires of the 18th and 18th c and led the
contemporaries to speak of new imperialism: The late 19th century
drive by ERPN countries to create vast political empires abroad
The
European Presence in Africa Before 1880
·
Prior to 1880, ERPN nations controlled only 10% of the African
continent and their possessions were hardly increasing
o
French began conquering Algeria in 1830
o
By 1880 substantial numbers of French/Spanish/Italian colonists settled
among the Arab majority
o
The overall effect on Africa was minor
·
At southern tip of Africa, Brit had taken possession of the Dutch
settlements at Cape Town during wars with NAP
o
Brit takeover of Cape Colony led Dutch cattle ranchers and farmers of
1835 to make their Great Trek into the interior, where they fought the Zulu and
Xhosa ppl for land
o
After 1853, while Brit colonies such as Canada and Australia were
evolving towards self-government, the Boers/Afrikaners (descendants of the
Dutch settlers in the Cape Colony in Southern Africa), proclaimed their political
indep and defended it against Brit armies
o
By 1880 Afrikaner and Brit settlers, who detested each other, had
wrested control of much of Southern Africa from the Zulu, Xhosa, and other African
ppl
·
Other than French presence in north and Brit and Afrikaners in south,
Africa was largely free of Westerners
o
ERPN trading posts/forts back to Age of Discovery and slave trade
dotted coast of W. Africa
o
Portuguese had a loose hold on old possessions in Angola and Mozambique
o
Elsewhere, ERPNs did not rule
·
After 1880, the situation changed drastically
o
In a manifestation of imperialism, ERPN countries jockeyed for
territory in Africa, breaking with previous patterns of colonization and
diplomacy
The
Scramble for Africa After 1880
·
Between 1880-1900 Brit, France, Germany, and Italy scrambled for
African possessions
o
By 1900 nearly the whole continent had been carved up under ERPN rule
o
Only Ethiopia in NE Africa (able to fight of Italian invaders) and
Liberia on West African coast (settled by free slaves from the US) remained indep
o
In all other African territories, the EPRN powers tightened their
control and established colonial governments in the years before 1914
·
Dutch settler repubs succumbed to imperialism, but final outcome was
diff
o
Brit, led by Cecil Rhodes in
the Cape Colony, leapfrogged over the 2 Afrikaner states (Orange Free State and the Transvaal)
in the early 1890s and established protectorates over Bechuanaland (Botswana)
and Rhodesia (Zimbabwe and Zambia)
o
Although unable to undermine stubborn Afrikaners in Transvaal, English
speaking capitalists such as Rhodes developed rich gold mines there, and Brit
eventually conquered their white rivals in the bloody South African War
(1899-1902)
·
In 1910 the old Afrikaner territories were united w/ the old Cape
Colony and the eastern province of Natal in a new Union of South Africa,
established as a largely “self-governing colony” (unlike any other territory in
Africa)
o
Enabled defeated Afrikaners to use their numerical superiority over
Brit settlers to gradually take polit power, as even most educated nonwhites
lost right to vote outside Cape Colony
·
Certain events/individs stand out
o
Brit occupation of Egypt in 1882, which established the new model of
formal political control
o
Role of Leopold II of Belgium,
an energetic/strong-willed monarch of a tiny country with a lust for distant
territory
§ 1861: lad out vision of
expansion
§ Steam and electricity
annihilated distance, and the not yet taken lands are fields of
operations/success
§ 1876: Leopold was focusing
on Central Africa
§ Formed financial syndicate
under his personal control to send Henry
M. Stanley, a sensation seeking journalist and part time explorer, to Congo
basin
·
Was able to establish trading stations, sign “treaties” with African
chiefs, and plant Leopold’s flag
§ Leopold’s actions alarmed
the French who sent out an expedition under Pierre de Brazza
·
1880: De Brazza signed a treaty of protection with the chief of the
large Teke tribe and began to establish a French protectorate on the north bank
of the Congo river
·
Leopold’s buccaneering intrusion into the Congo area raised he question
o political fate of Africa
o
By 1882 ERP caught “African fever”
o
There was a gold rush mentality; the race for territory was on
o
To lay down dome basic rules for this new dangerous game of imperialist
competition in sub-Saharan Africa, Jules
Ferry of France and Bismarck of
Germany arranged an international conference on African in Berlin in 1884 and
18854
·
The Berlin Conference established the principle that ERPN claims to
African territory had to rest on “effective occupation” in order to be
recognized by other states
o
ERPNs would push relentlessly into the interior regions from all sides
and that no single ERPN power would be able to claim the entire continent
o
Recognized Leopold’s personal rule over a neutral Congo free state and
greed to work to stop slavery and slave trade in Africa
·
Berlin conference coincided with Germany’s sudden emergence as an imperial
power
o
Meeting of EPRN leaders held in 1884 and 1885 to lay down basic rules
for imperialist competition in sub-Saharan Africa
o
Prior to 1880, Bismarck saw little value in colonies
o
1884 and 1885, as political agitation of expansion increased, Bismarck
did an abrupt about-face and Germany established protectorates over a number of
small African kingdoms and tribes in Togo, the Cameroons region, SW Africa, and
later E Africa
o
In acquiring colonies, Bismarck cooperated against Brit with France’s
Jules Ferry (ardent repub who embraced imperialism)
o
With Bismarck’s tacit approval, the French pressed southwards from
Algeria, eastward from their old forts on the Senegal coast, and northwards
from their protectorate on the Congo river
·
Meanwhile, the Brit began enlarging their W African enclaves and
impatiently pushed northward from the Cape Colony and westward from Zanzibar
o
Thrust southwards from Egypt was blocked in Sudan by indep Muslims who
massacred Brit forces at Khartoum in 1885
·
Decade later, another Brit
force, under General Horatio H.
Kitchener moved cautiously and more successfully up the Nile River,
building a RR to supply arms and reinforcements as it went
o
1898, Brit troops met their foe at Omdurman where Muslim tribesmen
armed w/ spears charged again and again only to be cut down by recently
invented Maxim machine gun
o
“Not a battle, but execution”
o
11,000 brave Muslim tribesmen lay dead, while 28 Brits were killed
·
Continued up Nile after Battle of Omdurman, Kitchener’s armies found
that a small French force already occupied the village of Fashoda
o
Locked in imperial competition with Brit ever since Brit occupation of
Egypt, France tried to beat Brit to one of Africa’s last unclaimed areas –
upper reaches of the Nile
o
Result was serious diplomatic crisis and threat of war
o
Wracked by Dreyfus affair and unwilling to fight, France backed down
and withdrew forces, allowing Brit to take over
·
Brit conquest of Sudan exemplifies the general process of empire
building in Africa
o
Muslim force at Omdurman was inflicted on all natives ppls who resisted
ERPN rule: blown away by superior military force
o
However much the EPR powers squabbled for territory and privilege, they
always had the sense to stop short of fighting each other
o
Imperial ambitions were not worth a great ERPN war
Imperialism
in Asia
·
ERPNs also extended their political control in Asia
o
1815 Dutch ruled little more than island of java in East Indies
o
Gradually brought almost all of the archipelago under their political
authority, though they shared some of the spoils with Brit and Germany
(imperialist fashion)
o
In decade of 1880s, French under leadership of Ferry took Indochina
o
India, China, Japan experienced a profound imperialist impact
·
Russia and US also acquired rich territories in Asia
o
Russia moved forward on two fronts
§ Conquered Muslim areas in
south in Caucasus and in Central Asia in 1885
§ Nibbled on China’s outlying
provinces in Far East in 1890
o
Great conquest by US was Philippines, taken from Spain in 1898 after
Spanish-American War
§ US did not grant indep, so
Philippine patriots rose in revolt and were suppressed after long, bitter
fighting
§ Some Am’s protested taking
of Philippines, but to no avail
§ Another great Western power
joined the imperialist ranks in Asia
Causes
of the New Imperialism
·
Many factors contributed to the late 19th c rush for
territory and empire, n aspect of Western society’s generalized expansions in
the age of industry and nationalisms
·
Economic motives
o
Especially Brit Empire
§ By late 1870s, France,
Germany, and US were industrializing rapidly behind tariff barriers
§ Brit was losing early lead
and facing tough competition in foreign markets
§ Brit came to value old
possessions, especially India, which it had exploited for more than a century
§ When continental powers
began to grab Asian and African territories in the 1880s, the Brits followed
§ Feared that France and
Germany would seal off their empires with high tariffs and that future economic
opportunities would be lost forever
·
Overall economic gains of new imperialism were limited before 1914
o
New colonies were simply too poor to buy much and offered few
immediately profitable investments
o
Nonetheless, even poorest, more barren desert was jealously prized, no
territory abandoned
o
Because colonies became important for political and diplomatic reasons
o
Each leading country saw colonies as crucial to national security and
military power
§ Safeguarding Suez Canal was
key role in Brit occupation of Egypt
§ Protecting Egypt led to
bloody conquest of Sudan
o
Far flung possessions guaranteed growing navies safe havens and
dependable coaling stations they needed in time of crisis or war
·
Many ppl were convinced that colonies were essential to great nations
o
“There has never been a great power without great colonies
o
National historian of Germany Heinrich
von Treitschke wrote: Every virile ppl has established colonial power…all
great nations in the fullness of strength have desired to set their mark upon
barbarian lands…those who fail to participate will play a pitiable role in time
to come
·
Treitschke’s harsh statement reflects increasing aggressiveness of ERPN
nationalism after Bismarck’s German unification wars, but also Social Darwinian
theories of brutal competition among races
o
The strongest nation conquers the weak
o
ERPN nations were seen as radically distinct parts of the dominant
white race
o
Had to seize colonies to show they were strong and virile
o
Since racial struggle was nature’s inescapable law, the conquest of
“inferior” peoples was just
§ Stepping stones on which
mankind has risen
§ Harsh and radical doctrines
fostered imperialistic expansion
·
Industrial world’s unprecedented technological and military superiority
o
Rapidly firing Maxim Machine gun was ultimate weapon in many unequal
battles
o
Newly discovered quinine proved no less effective in controlling
attacks of malaria, which had decimated whites in tropics
o
Combination of steamship and international telegraph permitted Western
powers to quickly concentrate their firepower in a given area
·
Never before/again would technological gap between the West and
non-West be so great
·
Social tensions and domestic political conflicts contributed to
overseas expansion
o
Germany, Russia, other counties to a lesser extent: contemp critics of
imperialism charged conservative polit leaders with manipulating colonial
issues to divert popular attention from class struggle at home and to create a
false sense of national unity
o
Imperial propagandists stressed that colonies benefited workers and
capitalists, providing jobs and cheap raw materials that raised workers’
standard of living
o
Gov leaders and their allies in tabloid press successfully encouraged
masses to savor foreign triumphs/glory to increase national prestige
o
Conservative leaders defined imperialist development as a national
necessity, which they used to justify the status quo and their hold on power
·
Certain special interest groups in each country were powerful agents of
expansion
o
Shipping companies wanted subsidies
o
White settlers wanted more land/protection
o
Missionaries/humanitarians wanted to spread religion and stop slave
trade within Africa
o
Military men/colonial officials wanted highly paid positions
o
Actions of these groups pushed course of empire forward
A
“Civilizing Mission”
·
Imperialists developed additional arguments to satisfy their
consciences and answer critics – not just need for naval bases on every
ocean/Darwinian racial struggle
·
Idea that ERPNs could “civilize” more primitive nonwhite ppls
o
Nonwhites would eventually receive the benefits of modern economies,
cities, advanced medicine, higher standards of living
o
In time they might be ready for self-gov and Western democracy
·
French spoke of “civilizing mission”
·
1899 Rudyard Kipling (influential
Brit writer of 1890s) exhorted ERPNS/Am’s to unselfish service in distant lands
in his poem “The White Man’s Burden”
·
Many Am’s accepted ideology of white man’s burden: idea that ERPNs
could and should civilize more primitive nonwhites and that imperialism would
eventually provide nonwhites with modern achievements and higher standards of
living
o
Important factor in decision to rule, rather than liberate, Philippines
after Spanish-American War
·
Like their ERPN counterparts, Am’s believed their civilization had reached
unprecedented heights and they had unique benefits to bestow on all “less advanced”
ppls
·
Argument that imperial gov protected natives from tribal warfare as
well as from cruder forms of exploitation by white settlers/business ppl
·
Peace and stability under EPRN control facilitated spread of CHR
o
In Africa, Cath and Prot missionaries competed w/ Islam south of Sahara
seeking converts and building schools
o
Some ppls became highly CHR (Ibo in Nigeria)
·
Successes in black Africa contrasted with failed missionary efforts in
India, China, and Islamic world
o
CHR often preached to ppl with ancient, deep rooted religious beliefs
Yet number of CHR around the
world did increase substantially in the 19th c and missionary groups
kept trying
Critics
of Imperialism
·
Expansion of empire aroused sharp/bitter criticism
o
1902, after unpopular South African War, radical English economist J.A. Hobson in Imperialism
§ Contended that rush to
acquire colonies was due to economic needs of unregulated capitalism,
particularly need of rich to find outlets for their surplus capital
§ Yet imperial possessions did
not pay off economically for the country as a whole – only unscrupulous special
interest groups profited at expense of ERPN taxpayer and natives
§ Argued that quest for empire
diverted popular attention away from domestic reform and need to reduce gap
between rich and poor
·
These and similar arguments were not very persuasive
o
Most ppl were sold on the idea that imperialism was economically
profitable for the homeland, and a broad and genuine enthusiasm for the empire
developed among the masses
·
Hobson and many other critics struck home with moral condemnations of
whites ruling nonwhites
o
Rebelled against Social Darwinian Thought
§ “O Evolution, what crimes
are committed in thy name!”
§ “Blessed are the strong, for
they shall prey on the weak”
·
Kipling and his king were lampooned as racial bullies whose rule rested
on brutality, racial contempt, and the Maxim machine gun
·
Henry Labouchere, member of PLMT and
prominent spokesman for this position, mocked Kipling’s poem
·
1902, Heart of Darkness Joseph Conrad castigated “pure
selfishness” of ERPNS in “civilizing” Africa
·
Critics charged ERPNS with applying degrading double standard and
failing to live up to their own noble ideals
o
At home ERPNS won or were winning rep gov, indiv liberties, and some
equality of opportunity
o
In their empires, EPRNS imposed military dictatorship on Africans and
Asian, put them to work involuntarily, and discriminated against them
o
Only by renouncing imperialism, its critics said, and giving captive ppls
freedom Western societies had, would ERPNS be worthy of their traditions
·
ERPNs who denounced imperialist tide provided colonial ppls with a
Western ideology of liberation
Responding
to Western Imperialism
·
To ppl in Africa/Asia Western expansion was a disruptive assault
o
Threatened traditional ruling classes, local economies, exiting ways of
life
o
CHR missionaries challenged established beliefs and values
·
Experienced crisis of identity exacerbated by the power and arrogance
of white intruders
The
Pattern of Response
·
Initial response of Africans/Asians was to drive unwelcome foreigners
away
o
China/Japan/upper Sudan
o
Violent anti-foreign reactions exploded again and again but superior
military tech of industrialized West almost always prevailed
·
Beaten in battle, they concentrated on preserving cultural traditions
at all costs
·
Others found themselves forced to reconsider initial hostility
·
Some concluded the West was indeed superior and was necessary to reform
their societies and copy EPRN achievements, esp if they wished to escape
Western polit rule
·
Traditionalists vs westerners and modernizers
o
Struggle among groups was intense
o
Modernizers tended to gain upper hand
·
When power of traditionalists and modernizers was shattered by superior
force, maj of Asians and Africans accepted imperial rule
o
Polit participation in non-Western lands was limited to small elites,
masses were used to doing what rulers told them to do
o
ERPNs governed smoothly and effectively because of so
o
Received support from traditionalists and modernizers
·
Imperial rule was in many ways an edifice built on sand
o
Support from EPRN rule among conquered masses was shallow/weak
o
Native ppl followed with greater or lesser enthusiasm a few determined
personalities who came to oppose the ERPNS
o
These leaders always arose, when ERPNS ruled directly and when they
manipulated native govs because
§ Nonconformists developed
burning desire for human dignity
·
Felt dignity was incompatible with foreign rule
§ Potential leaders found in
the Western world the ideologies and justification for their protest
·
Discovered liberalism, with civil liberties and political
self-determination
·
Echoed demands of anti-imperialism in EPR and Am that the West live up
to its own ideals
·
Attracted to modern nationalism (every ppl had the right to control its
own destiny)
·
After 1917, anti-imperialist revolt found another weapon In Lenin’s
version of Marxian socialism
o
Anti-imperialist search for dignity drew strength from Western
thought/culture
o
India/Japan/China
Empire
in China
·
India was jewel of Brit Empire; no colonial area had a more profound
Brit impact
o
Unlike Japan and China which maintained real/precarious indep
o
Unlike African territories which were annexed by ERPNs
o
Ruled absolutely by Brit for a very long time
·
Arrived in India in 17th c, Brit East India Company
conquered the last indep native state by 1848
o
Last traditional response was broken in India in 1857 and 1858
o
Great Rebellion: when an insurrection by Muslim and Hindu mercenaries
in Brit army spread throughout northern and central India before it was finally
crushed, primarily by loyal native troops from southern India
o
Brit ruled India directly until indep in 1947
·
After 1858 India was ruled by Brit PLMT in London and administered by a
tiny, all white civil service in India
o
In 1900 this elite consisted of fewer than 3,500 top officials for a
population of 300 million
o
Brit white elite, backed by white officers/native troops was competent
and well disposed toward welfare of Indian peasant masses
o
Practiced strict job discrimination and social segregation and most of
its members considered the jumble of Indian ppls and castes to be racially
inferior
·
Brit women played important part in imperial enterprise, esp after
opening of Suez Canal made it easier for civil servants to bring their wives
and children with them to India
o
Brit families tended to live in their own separate communities, where
they occupied large houses with well shaded porches, lawns, servants
o
Wife managed household
o
Wife relished in authority and was as confident and authoritarian as
Brits in India were
·
Small minority of Brit women sought to go further and shoulder the
“white women’s burden” in India; many were social
reformers/feminist/missionaries
o
Tried to improve lives of Indian women (Hindu/Muslim) and move them
closer through education and legislation to the better conditions they believed
western women had attained
o
Educated some elite Hindu women
·
Brit acted energetically and introduced many desirable changes to India
as they had a sense of mission and racial/cultural superiority
o
Realized they needed well educated Indians to serve as skilled
subordinates in gov/army, Brit established modern system of progressive
secondary education in English
o
Through ed and gov service, Brits offered some Indians excellent
opportunities for both economic and social advancement
o
High cast Hindus emerged as skillful intermediaries between Brit rulers
and Indian ppl and formed a new elite profoundly influenced by Western thought
and culture
·
New bureaucratic elite played curcal role in modern economic
development
o
Irrigation projects for agriculture, 3rd largest RR network,
large tep/jute plantations were developed
o
The lot of Indian masses improved little; increase in production was
eaten up by population increase
·
With well-educate English speaking Indian bureaucracy and modern
communications, Brit created a unified, powerful state
o
Placed Hindus and Muslims of entire subcontinent under same system of
law/admin
o
As if ERP had been conquered and united in a single empire
·
Decisive reaction to ERPN rule was rise of nationalism among Indian
elite
o
He could never be white ruler’s equal
o
Top jobs/hotels/clubs/RR compartments sealed off to brown-skinned
Indians
o
Peasant masses could accept inequality as same old oppression, but well
educated elite could not
o
For the elite, racial discrimination meant injured pride and injustice
o
Contradicted cherished Western concepts of human rights and equality
o
Based on dictatorship
·
By 1885 educated Indians came together to found predominately Hindu
Indian National Congress
o
Demands were increasing for equality and self-gov that Brit had already
granted white-settler colonies (Canada/Australia)
o
By 1907, emboldened by Japan’s success, radicals in Indian National
Congress were calling for complete indep
o
Sharp divisions between Hindu/Muslims but Indians were finding answer
to foreign challenge
o
Common heritage of Brit rule and Western ideals, along with reform and
revitalization of Hindu religion, created genuine movement for national indep
The
Example of Japan
·
When Matthew Perry arrived in japan in 1853 w/ gunboat diplomacy, japan
was a feudal society
o
Figurehead emperor, real power in hands of hereditary military governor
– shogun
o
Warrior nobility: samurai
o
Shogun governed country of hard-working productive peasants/city
dwellers
o
Poor/restless, intensely proud samurai were humiliated by sudden
American intrusion and unequal treaties with Western countries
·
When foreign diplomats and merchants began to settle in Yokohama,
radical samurai reacted w/ wave of antiforeign terrorism and antigovernment
assassinations from 1858-1863
·
Imperialist response was swift: allied fleet of Am, Brit, Dutch, French
warships demolished key forts, weakening power/prestige of shogun’s gov
·
1867: coalition by patriotic samurai seized control of gov w/ hardly
any bloodshed and restored political power of the emperor: Meiji Restoration –
turning point
·
Goal of new gov was to meet foreign threat
o
“Enrich the state, strengthen armed forces”
o
Young but well trained, idealistic but flexible leaders of Meiji Japan
dropped antiforeign attacks
o
Convinced that western civilization was superior in its
military/industrial aspects, they initiated from above a series of measures to
reform Japan along modern lines
o
Meiji leaders tried to harness power inherent in ERP’s dual revolution
in order to protect their country and catch up with the West
·
1871: new leaders abolished old feudal structure of
aristocratic/decentralized gov and formed strong unified state
o
Followed example of French Rev
o
Declared social equality
o
Decreed freedom of movement in a country
o
Free, competitive, gov stimulated economy
o
Began to build RRs and modern factories
o
New generation adopted many principles of a free, liberal society
o
Freedom resulted in a creative release of human energy
·
Overriding concern of Japan’s political leadership was powerful state
and strong military
o
Powerful modern navy was created
o
Army completely reorganized along ErpN lines
§ 3 yr military service
required for all males
§ Put down disturbances in
countryside
§ 1877 used to crush major
rebellion by feudal elements protesting loss of priveleges
o
Borrowed West’s science and modern tech
§ Industry, medicine,
education
§ Encouraged to study abroad
§ Paid large salaries to
attract foreign experts
·
Replaced by Japs ASAP
·
By 1890, when new state was firmly established, borrowing from West led
to emphasis on keeping with Jap tradition
o
Following model of German Empire, Jap established authoritarian constitution
and rejected democracy
o
Power of emperor and his ministers was large, legislature limited
·
Japan successfully copied imperialism of Western society
o
Proved Japan was strong and cemented the nation together
o
1876: Japan defeated China in war over Korea
o
1894-95: took Formosa (Taiwan)
o
Japan competed aggressively with leading EPRN powers for influence and
territory in China, particularly in Manchuria
o
1904: Japan attacked Russia without warning, Japan emerged with
valuable foothold in China, Russia’s former protectorate over Port Arthur
o
By 1910, with annexation of Korea, Japan had become a major imperialist
power
·
Japan became first non-western country to use ancient love of country
to transform itself and meet challenge of Western expansion
·
Demonstrated that a modern Asian nation could defeat/humble a great
Western power
·
Many Chinese and Viet nationalists were fascinated by Japan’s
achievement
·
Provided patriots throughout Asia and Africa with an inspiring example
of national recovery and liberation
Towards
Revolution in China
·
By 1860 the 200 y/o Qing Dynast in China appeared on the verge of
collapse
o
Efforts to repel foreigners failed
o
Rebellion and chaos wracked the country
o
Gov drew on its traditional strengths and made a comeback that lasted
over 30 yrs
·
Factors crucial in reversal
o
Traditional ruling groups temp produced new and effective leadership
§ Loyal scholar-statesmen and generals
quelled disturbances such as great Tia Ping rebellion
§ Empress dowager Tzu Hsi governed in name of her young
son, combining insight with action to revitalize the bureaucracy
o
Destructive foreign aggression lessened, ERPNs had obtained primary
goal of commercial and diplomatic relations
o
Some EPRNS contributed to dynasty’s recovery
o
Irishman reorganized China’s customs office, increasing gov tax
receipts
o
Am diplomat represented China in foreign lands, helping strengthen central
gov
o
Efforts dovetailed with dynasty’s efforts to adopt Western gov and tech
while maintaining traditional Chinese values/beliefs
·
Parallel movement toward domestic reform and limited cooperation with
West collapsed under blows of Jap imperialism
o
Sino-Jap war of 1894-1895 and subsequent harsh peace treaty revealed
China’s helplessness in face of aggression, triggering rush fr foreign
concessions and protectorates in China
o
High point of rush in 1898, appeared that the EPRN powers might
actually divide China among themselves, as they’d recently divided Africa
o
Jealousy each nation felt toward imperialist competitors saved China
from partition
o
Tempo of foreign encroachment accelerated after 1894
·
China’s precarious position after war with Japan led to renewed drive
for fundamental reforms
o
Some modernizers saw salvation in Western institutions
o
1898: Convinced young emperor to launch hundred days of reform: Series
of Western style reforms in an attempt to meet foreign challenge
o
More radical reformers such as Sun
Yat Sen sought to overthrow dynasty and establish a republic
·
Efforts at radical reform by young emp and allies threatened Qing
establishment and empress dowager Tzu Hsi who’d dominated court for past 25 yrs
o
Pulled palace coup
o
Imprisoned emperor, rejected reform movement, put reactionary officials
in charge
o
Hope for reform was crushed
·
Violent rxn swepth country encouraged by Qing court and led by secret
society foreigners called the Boxers
o
Boxers blamed China’s ills on foreigners, esp missionaries who they
accused of traveling through China and telling Chinese that their customs were
primitive and beliefs were wong
o
Conservative/patriotic/antiforeign Boxers charged foreign missionaries
with undermining Chinese reverence for their ancestors and threatening the
Chinese family and entire society
o
In agony of defeat and unwanted reforms, Boxers and other secret
societies struck out at their enemies
§ NE China, more than 200
foreign missionaries/Chinese Christians were killed
§ Threats/demands from Western
govs
§ Empress answered by
declaring war, hoping Boxers might relieve their foreign pressure on Qing
Dynasty
·
Imperialist response was swift harsh
o
Boxers besieged embassy quarter in Beijing, foreign govs organized
international force of 20,000 to rescue diplomats and punish China
o
Beijing occupied and plundered by Western armies
o
1901 China was forced to accept long list of penalties, including heavy
financial indemnity payable over 40 yrs
·
Years after defeat were more troubled
o
Anarchy/foreign influence spread as power/prestige of Qing Dynasty
declined further
o
Antiforeign/antigov rev groups agitated/plotted
o
1912 spontaneous uprising toppled Qing Dynasty
o
After thousands of years of emperors/empires, loose coalition of revolutionaries
proclaimed Western-style repub and called for an elected PLMT
o
Transformation of China under impact of expanding Western society entered
a new phase, end was not in sight
Thank you so much for your outlines they help so much!! I just wanted to say that the subtitle labeled "Empire in China" is supposed to say "Empire in India". Just helping my fellow Euro students :) Thank you again!
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DeleteThanks to your outlines, European History has been surprisingly easy for me. Thank you so much for all the hard work you've put into this.
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