Ch
16. Absolutism and Constitutionalism
Peasant Life in the Midst of Economic Crisis
·
17th Century: Most Europeans lived in the countryside
·
Hub of rural world: Small peasant village centered on a church and
manor
·
Life circumscribed by the village
·
Western Europe
o
Independent Farmers: Small number of peasants in each village owned
enough land to feed themselves and had the livestock and ploughs necessary to
work their land, leaders of the peasant village, employed landless poor, rented
out livestock and tools, served as agents to the noble landlord
o
Small landowners and tenant farmers: Did not have enough land to be
self sufficient, sold their best produce on the market to earn cash for taxes,
rent, food
o
Rural workers: dependent laborers and servants
·
Eastern Europe
o
Vast majority of peasants were serfs
§ Did not own land in their
own right
·
Bread was primary element of diet
o
Richest ate white bread, brown bread was for those who couldn’t afford
better
o
Peasants paid stiff fees to the local miller to grind grain and to the
lord to bake bread
o
Bread accompanies by soup and maybe salt pork
·
European rural society lived on the edge of sustenance
o
Crude technology and low crop yield
o
Constantly threatened by scarcity and famine
o
“Little ice age” occurred
§ Shorter farming season
§ Lower yield
§ Bad harvest -> food
shortages
§ Series of bad harvests ->
famine
§ Recurring famines reduced
population
§ Most died of diseases
brought on by malnutrition and exhaustion
§ Bubonic plague continued in
Europe
·
Industry suffered
o
Output of woolen textiles declined sharply
·
Food prices were high
·
Wages stagnated
·
Unemployment soared
·
Economic prices struck different regions at different times and degrees
·
Urban poor and peasants were hardest hit
o
Price of bread rose beyond their ability to pay they rioted
o
Invaded bakers’ shops to seize bread and resell it at a just price
o
Attacked convoys taking grain to city
o
Women led these actions: sometimes got impunity in authorities’ eyes
·
Moral economy: Community needs a predominate over competition and
profit
Return of Serfdom in the East
·
Economic and social hardship throughout Europe
·
Differences between East and West
o
West
§ Population losses from Black
Death allowed peasants to escape serfdom as they got enough land to feed
themselves and the livestock and ploughs necessary to work their land
o
East
§ Peasants lost ability to own
land independently
§ Eastern lords dealt with
labor shortages from Black Death by restricting right of peasants to move to
take advantages of better opportunities elsewhere
·
Lords took more and more of their peasants’ land
·
Arbitrarily imposed heavier and heavier labor obligations
·
Lords in many eastern territories could command peasants to work for
them without pay for 6 days a week
§ Local lord also local
prosecutor, judge, jailor
·
No independent royal officials to provide justice and uphold common law
§ Freedom of movement
restricted
·
Required permission to marry and could be married off at random
·
Lord could make serfs work at random places or could sell them apart
from their family
§ More serfs -> growth of
commercial agriculture (Poland and E. Germany)
·
Economic expansion and population growth
§ Eastern lords increased
production of estates by squeezing surpluses out of peasants
·
Sold surpluses to foreign merchants to exported them to wealthier
Western Europe
o
Netherlands and England benefited from cheap grain
§ Landlords undermined
medieval privileges of town and power of urban classes
·
Landlords sold directly to foreigners, bypassing local towns
·
Eastern towns lost medieval right of refuge and had to return peasants
to their lords
§ Population of towns and
urban middle class declined greatly
§ Supremacy of noble landlords
in 16th c.
The Thirty Years’ War
·
First half of 17th C.: Balance of life violently upturned by
30YW
·
HRE was confederation of hundreds of principalities, independent cities
loosely tied under an elected emperor
·
Uneasy truce between Catholics and Protestants by Peace of Augsburg
deteriorated as faiths of various areas shifted
·
Lutheran princes felt compelled to create Protestant Union (1608)
·
Catholics retaliated with Catholic League (1609)
·
Each alliance was determined that the other should make no religious or
territorial advance
·
Spanish Habsburgs supported goals of their Austrian relatives: Unity of
empire and preservation of Catholicism within it
·
30 Years War
o
Bohemian Phase
§ Civil war in Bohemia between
Catholic League and Protestant Union
§ 1620: Catholic forces
defeated Protestants at Battle of White Mountain
o
Danish Phase
§ Leadership of Protestant king
Christian IV of Denmark
§ Catholic victories
§ Catholic army of Albert of
Wallenstein swept through Silesia, north to Baltic, east to Pomerania
§ Habsburg Power peaked in
1629
§ Edict of Restitution: All
Catholic property lost to Protestants since 1552 were restored and only
Catholicism and Protestantism could be worshipped
o
Swedish
§ Swedish King Gustavus
Adolphus: ablest administrator and devout Lutheran
§ Support Protestants
§ Richelieu subsidized Swedes
to weaken Habsburg power in Europe
§ Gustavus won some battles
but was wounded in combat
o
French Phase
§ Richelieu’s concern that
Habsburgs would rebound after death of Gustavus Adolphus.
§ Declared war on Spain and
sent military and financial assistance
§ October 1648: Peace of
Westphalia
·
Ended 30YW
·
Conflicts over religious faith receded
·
Treaties recognized independent authority of more than 300 German
princes
·
Reconfirmed emperor’s severely limited authority
·
Augsburg agreement of 1555 became permanent, adding Calvinism to
Catholicism and Lutheranism as legally permissible creeds
o
N. Germany Protestant, S. Germany Catholic
·
Results of 30YW
o
Most destructive event for central European economy and society
o
1/3 of urban residents, 2/5 of rural population died
§ Entire areas depopulated
o
Trade in Southern German cities virtually destroyed
o
Agriculture suffered catastrophically
o
Many small farmers lost land, allowing nobles to enlarge their estates
and consolidate control
Achievements in State Building
·
In economic and demographic depression, monarchs began to make new
demands on people
·
Absolutist: France, Spain, central Europe, Russia
o
Gathered all power under personal control
·
Constitutionalist: England, Dutch Republic
o
Obliged to respect laws passed by representative institutions
·
Similarities
o
Common projects of protecting and expanding their frontiers
o
Raising new taxes
o
Consolidating central control
o
Competition for new colonies opening up in New and Old Worlds
·
Rulers who wished to increase authority had obstacles
o
No paved roads, telephones, or modern technology
§ Took weeks to convey orders
from central gov to provinces
o
Lack of info from realms
§ Impossible to police and tax
population effectively
o
Local power
§ Nobles, church, provincial
and national assembles, other bodies had legal privileges which could not
easily be rescinded
o
People spoke a different language than the Crown’s in some kingdoms
·
Absolutist and Constitutional gov achieved new levels of central
control
·
Increased authority focused in four areas: greater taxation, growth in
armed forces, larger and more efficient bureaucracies, increase ability to compel
obedience from subjects
·
Got close to sovereignty
·
Sovereign states: possesses a monopoly over instruments of justice and
use of force within clearly defined boundaries, no system of courts competes
with state courts, private armies are no threat to central authority
·
17th century monarchies got close to sovereignty
Warfare and Growth of Army Size
·
Driving force of 17 c state building was warfare – dramatic changes in
size and styles of armies
·
Medieval armies were owned by feudal lords for particular wars/campaigns
and were disbanded after
·
Monarchs took command of recruiting and maintaining armies in peacetime
and wartime
·
Kings deployed troops inside and outside the country in interests of
the monarchy
·
Army offices were required to be loyal and obedient to monarchs who
commanded them
·
New techniques for training and deploying soldiers -> rise in
professional standards of army
·
Explosive growth in army size
o
French took lead
o
Caused in part by changes in style of armies
o
Mustering royal army took longer than hiring a mercenary band, giving
enemies time to form coalitions
·
Death toll for noble officers who personally led men into battle was
high
o
Noble value of honor outshone concerns for safety or material benefit
o
Had to purchase their own positions and supply horses, food, uniforms,
weapons for them and their troops
o
Widow of noble officer got debt that noble officer left her
·
European powers were quick to follow French example
o
Rise of absolution in central and eastern European led to vast
expansion in size of armies
o
Great Britain built up naval forces and built the biggest navy in the
world
Popular Political Action
·
17 c: increased pressures of taxation and warfare turned neighborhood
riots over the cost of bread into armed uprisings
·
Spain
o
1640: Philip IV of Spain faced revolt in Catalonia, economic center of
his realm, and struggled to put down uprisings in Portugal and northern
Netherlands
o
1647: Palermo: Spanish occupied Sicily, protest over food shortages
caused by bad harvests
o
City gov. subsidized price of bread, attracting more starving peasants
o
Madrid ordered end to subsidies, municipal leaders decided to keep
price same, but sell less bread for the same price
o
Riots turned into armed revolt, insurgency spread to rest of Italy
o
Rebels demanded affordable food and suppression of extraordinary taxes
and participation in municipal gov
o
Some dreamed of republic where noble tax exemptions were abolished
o
Initial success, but revolt lacked unity and strong leadership and
couldn’t withstand forces of the state
·
France
o
Urban uprisings frequent
o
Dijon, Bordeaux, Montpellier, Lyons, Amiens
o
Deep popular anger and violence directed at official tax collectors
§ Sometimes seized, beaten, or
hacked to death
o
Louis XIV’s imposition of new taxes provoked Bordeaux uprising
·
Municipal and royal authorities struggled to overcome popular revolt
o
Stern repressive measures (troops) would create martyrs and inflame the
situation
o
Full scale military occupation of country would be expensive
·
Limitations of royals gave leverage to rebels
o
To quell riots, some edicts were suspended, prisoners released,
discussions initiated
·
Beginning of 18th c: Leverage disappeared
o
Municipal gov more integrated into national structure
o
Local authorities had prompt military support from central gov
o
People who publicly opposed royal policies/taxes got swift/severe
punishment
Absolutism in France and Spain
·
Middle ages: Monarchs were appointed “by the grace of God”
·
Law was given by God and kings found and acknowledged that they had to
follow these laws
·
Kings in absolutist states said they were chosen by God and were responsible
to God alone
·
Had exclusive power to make and enforce laws, denying any other institution
or group to check their power
·
Henry IV established foundations which Louis VIII and Louis XIV built
on for a stronger, more centralized state
·
Louis XIV is the epitome of absolute monarch
o
Endless wars, increased taxes, economic regulation, Versailles
o
Relied on collaboration with nobles
·
Achievements and compromises of absolutist rule
·
French power rose in 17c, while glory of Spain faded
o
Revenue from American silver declined
o
Economic stagnation could no longer be disguised
o
Country faltered under weak leadership
Foundations of Absolutism
·
Henry IV laid foundation for Henry XIV’s absolutist rule
·
Henry IV: Founder of Bourbon dynasty
o
Acquired devastated country
o
Civil war between Protestant and Catholics wrecked France
o
Poor harvests -> starving peasants
o
Commercial activity declined drastically
o
Promised “a chicken in every pot”
o
Inaugurated recovery
o
Kept France at peace with his middle ground between Catholicism and
Protestantism (he was Catholic)
o
Issued Edict of Nantes: Gave Protestants the right to worship in the
150 traditionally Protestant towns in France
o
Lowered taxes
o
Charged royal officials an annual fee to guarantee right to pass their
positions down to their heirs
o
Improved infrastructure of the country: built new roads, canals,
repaired ravages of civil war
o
Murdered by Catholic zealot
·
Wife, Marie de’ Medici
o
Headed gov. for young Louis ZIII
·
Cardinal Richelieu: became first minster of French crown
o
Allowed monarchy to maintain power within Europe and within its own
borders despite turmoil of 30YW
·
Richelieu was a political genius
o
Administrative system
§ Strengthen royal control
§ Intendants: 32 districts of
France
·
Appointed by monarchy
·
Solely responsible to monarchy
·
Recruited men for army
·
Supervised tax collection
·
Presided over local law
·
Checked on local nobility
·
Regulated economic activities
o
Intendants’ power increased, so did Richelieu and France’s centralized
power
o
Repress Protestantism
§ Siege of La Rochelle:
October 1628
·
Major commercial center with ties to Protestant Holland and England
·
Municipal gov was suppressed
·
Protestants retained right to public worship
·
Catholic liturgy was restored
o
Wanted to destroy Catholic Habsburgs’ grip on territories that
surrounded France
o
Supported Habsburg enemies
o
1631: Signed treaty with Lutheran Gustavus Adolphus promising French
support against Habsburgs in 30YW
o
Interests of state outweighed religious considerations
·
Successor to Richelieu: Cardinal Jules Mazarin with regent Queen Mother
Anne of Austria over Louis XIV
o
Continued Richelieu’s centralizing policies
o
Increased royal revenue to meet cost of war
o
Led to uprisings: Fronde
§ Many individ’s and groups
who opposed policies of gov
§ Parliament of Paris (most
important court of the nation) opposed Crown’s measures
§ Robe nobles encouraged
violent protest from people
§ Queen mother fled Paris with
Louis XIV from riots
§ Rebellion spread outside
Paris and sword nobles (warrior nobility) helped civil order break down
o
Anne’s regency ended and rebellion died as leaders came to terms with
gov
·
Fronde results
o
People wished for peace and a strong monarch to impose order
·
Louis XIV inherited France wishing for peace
·
Largest and most populous country in W. Europe
·
Determined to avoid any recurrence of rebellion because he was
humiliated by his flight from Paris
Louis XIV and Absolutism Look
for similarities to Henry II
·
Reign of Louis XIV – longest in European history
·
French monarch reached peak of absolutist development
·
Development of court and brilliance of culture
·
Louis dominated his age
·
Louis was taught the doctrine of divine right of kings: God established
kings as rulers on earth and were answerable to him alone
·
Kings had to obey God’s laws, could not simply do as they pleased, had
to do so for the good of the people
·
Louis worked hard at governing
o
Ruled realm through several councils of state and took personal role in
councils’ decision
o
Selected councilors from recently ennobled or middle class to show he was
on top and to make them feel indebted to him
·
Increasing financial problems
·
Louis never called Estates General
·
Nobility had no means of united expression/action
·
Louis did not have a first minister – kept another Richelieu from
happening
·
Louis hated division within realm
·
Insisted on religious unity to secure royal dignity and security of
state
·
1685: Evoked Edict of Nantes
o
Destroyed Huguenot churches
o
Closing of schools
o
Catholic baptism of Huguenots
o
Exile of Huguenot pastors
o
Departure of some of his most loyal and industrially skilled subjects
·
Constraints on Louis’s powers
o
Obliged to rule in a way that was consistent with virtue and benevolent
to the people
Had to uphold
laws passed by previous royal predecessors
o
Relied on collaboration of nobles, who still had tremendous prestige
and authority in their ancestral lands
o
W/o nobles’ cooperation, it would’ve been impossible to extend his
power throughout France or wage foreign wars
o
To elicit noble cooperation, Louis built Versailles
Life
at Versailles
·
Most of 17c: French court had no fixed home, followed monarch to his
many palaces
·
1682: Louis moved court and gov to Versailles
o
Became center of political, social, cultural life
o
King required all great nobles to spend part of the year in attendance
on him there to keep an eye on their activities
·
Louis controlled distribution of state power and wealth
o
Nobles had no choice but to obey Louis and compete with each other for
his favor at Versailles
·
Versailles was mirror to world of French glory – absolutist monarchs
copied it later on
o
Gov. offices for royal bureaucrats
o
Living quarters for royal family and nobles
o
Work place for hundreds of servants
·
Louis had etiquette rituals
o
Nobles served him in these rituals and fought for his favor
o
King controlled resources and privileges – access to him meant favored
treatment for gov offices, military, and religious posts, state pensions,
honorary titles, and other benefits
·
Courtiers sought rewards for themselves and their family members and
followers
·
Patronage: Higher ranked indiv protected a lower ranked on in return
for loyalty and service
·
Louis gained cooperation from powerful nobles
·
Women: denied public offices and posts, but were central in the
patronage system
o
King’s wife, mistresses, other relatives recommended individs for
honors
o
Advocated policy decisions
o
Brokered alliances
·
Noblewomen
o
Brought family connections to marriage to form powerful social networks
·
Louis was an enthusiastic patron of the arts
o
Commissioned sculptures and paintings for Versailles
o
Performances of dance and music
·
Art and literature: French classicism
o
Artists and authors of late 17c imitated classical antiquity, resembled
Renaissance Italy
·
Plays – finest achievements in history of French theater
·
Versailles: center of European politics caused French culture to get
international prestige
·
French: language of polite society and international diplomacy
(replaced Latin as language of scholarship and learning)
·
France inspired cosmopolitan European culture that looked to Versailles
as its center
French Financial Management Under Colbert
·
Controller general of Louis: Jean-Baptiste Colbert helped France’s
economy to allow France to build armies and fight wars
o
Financial genius
o
Wealth and economy of France should serve the state
o
Applied mercantilist policies to France
·
Mercantilism: collection of gov policies for the regulation of economic
activities by and for the state
o
Nation’s international power is based on its wealth, supply of gold and
silver
o
To get wealth, country must sell more goods than it bought
o
Decrease purchase of goods outside France: French industry should
produce everything needed by French people
o
Increase exports: Supported old industries, created new ones, focusing
on textiles
o
New production regulations
o
Created guilds to boost quality standards
o
Encouraged foreign craftsmen to immigrate to France
o
Encourage purchase of French goods: Abolished domestic tariffs and raised
tariffs on foreign products] 1664: Colbert founded Company of the East Indies
with hopes of competing with Dutch for Asian trade
·
Canada
o
Hoped to made Canada part of French empire
o
Had rich minerals and agricultural land
o
Sent colonists to Quebec
·
Jacques Marquette and Louis Joliet sailed down Mississippi River which
they named Colbert
o
Claimed possession of land on both sides of the river
o
1684: Claimed Louisiana for Louis XIV
·
Louis was able to pursue goals without massive tax increases or without
created new stream of offices
·
Pressure of warfare undid many of Colbert’s economic achievements
Louis XIV’s Wars
·
Thought conqueror was noblest and highest of titles
·
Francois le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois, Louis’s secretary of state for
war equaled Colbert in economic achievements
·
Louvois created a professional army where the French state employed
soldiers
·
Uniforms and weapons were standardized
·
Rational system of training and promotion was devised
·
Model was followed across Europe
·
Louis’s goal: Expand France to what he considered its natural borders
o
Got Spanish Netherlands, Flanders, Franche-Comtรฉ, Strasbourg, Lorraine
o
King seemed invincible
·
Louis reached limit of expansion
·
1680-1690: No additional territories
·
Placed strains on French resources
·
Colbert’s successors did desperate measures to finance wars:
o
Devaluation of currency
o
New Taxes
·
During Louis’s last war, the French people were suffering high taxes,
crop failure, malnutrition, death
·
1700: Spanish Charles II died
o
Struggle for control of Spain and colonies
o
Bequeathed Spanish crown and empire to Philip of Anjou, Louis XIV’s
grandson
o
Will violated treaty that European powers agreed to divide Spanish
possessions between King of France and Holy Roman Emperor
o
Louis broke with treaty and accepted the will, claiming hew as
following both French and Spanish interests
o
Triggered War of Spanish Succession (1701-1713)
·
1701: English, Dutch, Austrians, Prussians formed Grand Alliance
against Louis
·
1713: Peace of Utrecht: ended war
·
Philip of Anjou remained king of Spain and there was an understanding
that French and Spanish crowns would never be united
·
France surrendered Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Hudson Bay to England
·
England gained Gibraltar, Minorca, control of Spain’s African slave
trade
·
Peace of Utrecht
o
Balance of power principle
o
Limits on extent of one power to expand
o
End of French expansion
·
French gained Alsace and some commercial centers to north
·
France hovered on bankruptcy
·
Subjects felt relief and sorrow when Louis XIV died
The Decline of Absolutist Spain in the Seventeenth Century
·
Beginning of 17c: France was weak
o
Struggling from religious wars
o
Did not dare compete with Spain’s European and overseas empire or
military
·
End of 17c: positions were reversed: Spain down, France up to European
dominance
·
Early 17c: It becomes evident Spain is about to come to disaster
·
1610 to 1650: Trade with colonies in New World Fell due to competition
from local industries from Dutch and English
·
Indian and African slaves suffered diseases and died
·
Mines started to run dry
·
Madrid: Royal expenditures exceeded income
·
Mountainous state debt
·
Crown devalued coinage and declared bankruptcy
o
Collapse of national credit
·
Manufacturing and commerce shrank
·
Spain had tiny middle class
o
Elite condemned moneymaking as vulgar/undignified
o
People entered economically unproductive professions
·
Crown expelled Moriscos, former Muslims and reduced pool of skilled
workers and merchants
·
9,000 monasteries in Castile alone (Spain is still Catholic)
·
Textile industry forced out of business by inflation
·
Spanish aristocrats wanted to maintain extravagant lifestyle they
couldn’t afford
o
Increased rents
·
High rents and heavy taxes drove peasants from land
o
Decline in agriculture productivity
·
Wages and production stagnated
·
Spain ignored new methods of agricultural and manufacturing techniques
because they came from Holland/England
·
Spanish crown had no solution to situation
o
Philip III handed gov to duke of Lerma who used it to gain personal and
familial wealth
o
Philip IV left management to Count Duke of Olivares, who was an able
administrator, and devised new sources of revenue, but looked back to 16th
century imperial tradition for solutions
o
Imperial tradition demanded revival of war with Dutch at expiration of
truce and a long waf with France over Mantua
o
Spain became embroiled in 30YW which brought disaster
·
Situation worsened with internal conflicts and military defeats for the
rest of the 17c
o
Revolts in Catalonia and Portugal
o
French bat Spanish at Rocroi (Belgium)
o
Treaty of Pyreenes ended French-Spanish conflict
o
Spain surrendered much territories to France
·
Crown reluctantly recognized independence off Portugal
·
Era of Spanish dominance in Europe ended
Absolutism in Austria and Prussia
·
Rulers of E. Europe labored to build strong absolutist states in the
17c
·
Built on social and economic foundations different than w. Europe
o
Serfdom and strong nobility
o
Endless wars allowed monarchs to increase power by building large
armies, increasing tax, suppressing representative institutions
o
Monarchs allowed nobles to remain unchallenged rulers over their
peasants in exchange for growing political authority
§ Appeased king and nobility
§ Serfs still at mercy of
lords
·
Austria and Prussia: most successful states
·
Witnessed rise of Absolutism between 1620 – 1740
The Austrian Habsburgs
·
Habsburgs emerged from 30YW impoverished and exhausted
·
Efforts to destroy Protestantism in Germand lands and to turn HRE into
unified state failed
·
Habsburgs were hereditary emperors, real power was in hands of separate
political jurisdictions
·
Defeat in c Europe led Habsburgs to focus inward and eastward to unify
their diverse holdings
·
If they couldn’t impose Catholicism, they could at least do so in their
own domains
·
Habsburg victory over Bohemia
o
Ferdinand II reduced power of Bohemian Estates, who were largely
Protestant representatives
o
Confiscated landholdings of Protestant nobles and gave them to loyal
Catholic nobles and foreign mercenaries who held his army
o
Large portion of Bohemian nobility owed success to Habsburgs
·
Habsburgs established direct rule over bohemia
o
Condition of enserfed peasantry worsened
§ Unpaid labor
o
Protestantism was stamped out
o
Changes important in created Absolutist rule in Bohemia
·
Ferdinand III continued to build state power
o
Centralized gov in empire’s German speaking provinces which was the
core of Habsburg holdings
o
Permanent standing army was ready to put down any internal opposition
·
Habsburg monarchy turned east towards Hungary
o
Was divided between Ottomans and Habsburgs
o
Habsburgs pushed Ottomans from most of Hungary and Transylvania
o
1718: Recovery of former kingdom of Hungary
·
Hungarian nobility thwarted full development of Habsburg absolutism
o
Hungarian nobles rose in revolt against imposed absolutist rule
o
Never triumphed, but they weren’t crushed
o
Hungarians rose under Prince Francis Rakoczy while Habsburgs were down
in War of Spanish Succession
·
Rakoczy and his forces were eventually defeated
·
Habsburgs agreed to restore many of traditional privileges of
aristocracy in return for Hungarian acceptance of Habsburg rule
·
Hungary was never fully integrated into a centralized, absolute
Hungarian state
·
Habsburgs made significant achievements in state building by forging
consensus with church and nobility
o
Sense of common identity and loyalty to monarchy grew among elites
o
German became language of state
o
Zealous Catholics helped fuse collective identity
o
Vienna became political and cultural center of empire
§ By 1700: Thriving city with
population of 100,000 and its own version of Versailles
Prussia in the Seventeenth Century
·
Hohenzollern family ruled parts of e. Germany as imperial electors of
Brandenburg and dukes of Prussia
·
“Elector” privilege of being one of the few entitled to elect Holy
Roman emperor, but had little real power
·
Frederick William
o
“Great Elector”
o
Determined to unify his 3 provinces and enlarge them by diplomacy and
war
o
Brandenberg, Prussia, scattered holdings along the Rhine
§ Inhabited by German speakers,
but each had its own estates
§ Taxes could not be levied
without their consent
·
Brandenberg and Prussia were dominated by nobility and landowning
class, called Junkers
·
Frederick William
o
Argued need of army
o
Persuaded Junkers to accept taxation without consent to fund army
o
They agreed in exchange for reconfirmation of their own privileges,
including authority over serfs
o
Frederick William crushed potential opposition to his power from the
towns
o
Prussian cities were eliminated from the estates and subjected to new
goods and services
·
Estates’ power declined: Great Elector had financial independence and
superior force
·
State revenue tripled
·
Army expanded drastically
·
1701: Son of Frederick William, Frederick I, received title of King of
Prussia (not elector) as a reward for aiding HRE in War of Spanish Succession
The Consolidation of Prussian Absolutism
·
Frederick William I: “The Soliders’ King: Completed his grandfather’s work
o
Eliminated traces of parliamentary estates and local self-gov
o
Truly established absolutist Prussia and transformed Prussia into a
military state
·
Frederick William I was attached to military life
o
Wore army uniform
o
Lived disciplined life of professional soldier
o
Penny pinching and hard working
·
Results of Frederick William I
o
Honest and conscientious bureaucracy to administer country and foster
economic development
o
4th largest army in Europe
§ Precision, skill, discipline
·
Prussia paid heavy and lasting price for obsessions of Frederick
William I
o
Army expansion was gained through forced conscriptions
§ Lifelong service
o
Draftees fled country or injured themselves to avoid service
·
Frederick I ordered all Prussian men to undergo military training and
serve as reservists in the army
o
Preserved agricultural production and army size
·
King enlisted Junkers to lead his growing army
·
Nobility commanded peasantry in army as well as estates
The Development of Russia and The Ottoman Empire
·
Europeans thought Ottomans were outsiders
o
Absolutist rulers disdained Ottoman sultans as cruel and tyrannical
despots
·
Ottoman Empire was in many ways more tolerant than Western counterparts
o
Protection and security to other religions
o
Maintaining Muslim faith
·
Ottoman state combined Byzantine heritage of the territory it conquered
with Persian and Arab tradition
·
Flexibility ad openness to other ideas were sources of strength
The Mongol Yoke and the Rise of Moscow
·
Rule by Mongol khan ruled Russia for 200 years
·
Mongols, group of nomadic tribes from Mongolia established an empire
that at its height stretched from Korea to eastern Europe
·
Mongols forced Slavic princes to submit to their rule and pay tribute
of money, goods, slaves
·
Princes of Moscow were adept at serving the Mongols and were awarded
the title of “great Prince”
·
Ivan III: Ivan the Great
o
Expanded principality of Moscow to Baltic Sea
o
Felt strong enough to stop acknowledging khan as his supreme ruler and
cease paying tribute
o
Princes of Moscow modeled themselves on Mongol khans to show their new
autonomy
o
Declared themselves autocrats, they were the sole source of power
o
Muscovite state forced weaker Slavic principalities to render tribute
o
Borrowed Mongol institutions such as tax system, postal routes, census
o
Boyars: loyalty from the highest ranking nobles helped Muscovite
princes consolidate power
·
Moscow’s claim to the political and religious inheritance of the
Byzantine Empire
o
Fall of Constantinople to the Turks, princes of Moscow saw themselves
as heirs of Caesarss (emperors) and Orthodox Christianity
o
Title tsar, is contraction of Caesar
§ Tsars considered themselves
rightful and holy rulers
o
Marriage of Ivan III to daughter of the last Byzantine emperor enhanced
Moscow’s claim to inherit imperial authority
The Tsar and His People
·
Ivan IV “Ivan the terrible” ascended the throne
o
At 16, he crowned himself tsar
·
Ivan IV defeated remnants of Mongol power
·
Added vast new territories to the realm
·
Laid foundations for huge, multiethnic Russian empire
·
Sudden death of Anastasia Romanov
·
Ivan began campaign of persecution against those he suspected of
opposing him
o
Inmates of the court from leading boyar families he killed
·
To further crush power of boyars, Ivan created new service nobility,
whose loyalty was guaranteed by their dependence on the state for noble titles
and estates
·
Ivan portioned out the large estates seized from boyars to this new
nobility, taking some land for himself
·
Ivan IV moved toward making all commoners servants of the tsar
o
Landlords demanded more from serfs who survived persecution, more and
more peasants fled toward wild, recently conquered territories to east and
south
o
Joined free group and warrior bands called Cossacks
o
Peasants were tied even more firmly to the land and to noble
landholders, who served tsar
·
Ivan bound urban traders and artisans to their towns and jobs so he
could tax them more heavily
·
Urban classes had no security in their work or property
·
Nobles to merchants to peasants, Russian people were brought into
tsar’s service
·
Ivan IV used Cossack armies in forays to southeast, forging new
alliance between Moscow and Cossacks
·
Death of Ivan IV and his successors
·
Russia entered chaotic period “Time of Troubles”
·
Ivan’s relatives struggled for power, ordinary people suffered drought,
crop failure, plague -> suffering and death
·
Cossack and peasants rebelled against nobles and officials, demanding
fairer treatment
·
Social explosions from below brought nobles together
·
They crushed Cossack rebellion and elected Ivan’s grandnephew, Michael
Romanov the new hereditary tsar
·
Michael’s election was a restoration of tsarist autocracy
·
Michael Romanov
o
Successfully reconsolidated central authority
o
He and his successors did not improve the common people
§ Extended serfdom to all
peasants in the realm
§ Gave lords unrestricted
rights over serfs
§ Established penalties for
harboring runaways
o
Social and religious uprisings continued through the 17c
§ Cossack Stenka Razin
attracted a great army of urban poor and peasants to kill landlords and gov
officials and proclaimed freedom from oppression
·
Rebellion defeated
·
Romanov tsars, despite turbulence, made several important achievements
during second half of 17c (like western counterparts)
·
After a long war, Russia gained Ukraine from Poland and completed the
conquest of Siberia
·
Territorial expansion was accompanied by growth of bureaucracy and army
·
Foreign experts were employed to help build and reform Russian army
o
Cossack warriors were enlisted to fight Siberian campaigns
·
Profits from Siberia’s natural resources (furs) funded Romanov’s bid
for Great Power status
·
Russian imperialist expansion to the east paralleled Western powers’
exploration and conquest of the Atlantic world
The Reforms of Peter the Great
·
Heir to Romanov efforts at state building: Peter the Great
o
Campaign to accelerate and complete process
o
Enormous energy/willpower
o
Determined to build and improve the army and continue the tsarist
tradition of territorial expansion
o
Tumultuous reign
·
Fascinated by weapons and foreign technology
o
Led a group of 250 Russian officials and young nobles on a tour of w.
Europe
o
Traveled unofficially to avoid lengthy diplomatic ceremonies
o
Peter worked at various crafts and met with foreign kings
o
Impressed by Dutch and English
§ Considered how Russia could
profit from their example
·
Returned to Russia
·
Entered into a secret alliance with Denmark and Poland to wage sudden
war against Sweden to secure access to the Baltic Sea for westward expansion
opportunities
·
Believed combined forces could overpower Sweden with a new king
o
Charles XII of Sweden defeated Denmark and turned on Russia
o
In a snowstorm, Charles defeated Peter’s army
o
Peter and his army fled to Moscow
§ Beginning to Great Northern
War from 1700-1721
·
Peter took measures to increase state power, strengthen armies, and
gain victory
o
Required all nobles to serve in the army or civil administration for
life
o
Created schools and universities to produce them
o
Established an interlocking, military-civilian bureaucracy with 14
ranks
§ All had to start at the
bottom and work toward the top
§ Allowed some ppl of non
noble origin to rise to high positions
o
Drew on experience abroad to get talented foreigners to place in his
service
§ Combined army and government
to become more powerful and efficient
o
Increased service requirements of commoners
§ Established a regular
standing army of peasants soldiers commanded by noble officers
§ Cossacks and foreign
mercenaries were brought into Russian army
o
Taxes on peasants increased 3x to fund army
o
Serfs were arbitrarily assigned to work in the growing number of
factories and mines that supplied the military
·
Peter’s new war machine crushed the small army of Sweden in Ukraine
·
Estonia and Latvia came under Russian rule
·
Warfare consumed 80-85% of all revenues
·
Russia became dominant power in the Baltic and a European Great power
·
Channeled resources into building a new Western style capital on Baltic
to rival great cities of Europe
·
St. Petersburg designed to reflect modern planning with straight
avenues, large parks
·
Peter the Great wanted all to see his goals
o
Drafted people to work on St. Petersburg without pay
o
Peasant construction workers died from hunger, sickness, accidents
o
Nobles were ordered to build costly houses and palaces in St.
Petersburg to live for most of the year
o
Merchants and artisans were commanded to settle and build the new
capital
§ Required to pay for the
city’s infrastructure
o
St. Petersburg was a huge tax levied on the wealthy, with the peasants
forced to do manual labor
·
Modernization meant westernization
o
Westerners and western ideas flowed into Russia
§ Required nobles to shave
their beards and wear western clothing
o
New elite class of Western oriented Russians began to emerge
·
Peter’s reforms were unpopular with many Russians
o
Nobles detested imposition of unigenture: inheritance of land by one
son, cutting daughters and other sons from gaining property
o
Peasants hated increased bonds of serfdom and gulf between enserfed
peasantry and educated nobility increased
·
Peter’s reforms were a continuation of Russia’s distinctive history
o
Built on service obligations of Ivan the Terrible and his successors
o
Monarchial absolutism is seen as culmination of long development of a
unique Russian civilization
·
Creation of a more modern army and state introduced much that was new
and Western to Russia
o
Development paved way for Russia to move somewhat closer to European
mainstream in thought and institutions
The Growth of the Ottoman Empire
·
Most Christians and European perceived Ottomans as antithesis of their
own values and traditions
o
Viewed the empire as driven by insatiable lust for war and conquest
o
Fall of Constantinople was catastrophe and taking of Balkans a form of
despotic imprisonment
·
Ottomans saw world very differently
o
Siege of Constantinople liberated a glorious city from its long decline
under Byzantines
o
Balkans became a heaven for refugees fleeing intolerance of Western
Christian power
§ Provided Jews, Muslims, and
some Christians safety from Inquisition and religious war
·
Ottomans came out of Central Asia as conquering warriors and settled in
Anatolia (Turkey)
·
Ruled one of the most powerful empires in the world at their peak
·
Possessions stretched from western Persia across North Africa and into
Central Europe
·
Ottoman Empire originally built on a unique model of state and society
o
Complete absence of private landed property
o
Agricultural land was personal property of sultan
o
Peasants paid taxes to use the land
o
There was therefore no security of landholding and no hereditary
nobility
·
Ottomans employed distinctive form of gov administration
o
Top ranks of bureaucracy were staffed by sultan’s slave corps
§ Agents purchased slaves from
borders of empire
·
Sultan levied tax of male children on conquered Christian populations
in Balkans every year
o
Young slaves were raised in Turkey as Muslims
o
Trained to fight and administer
o
Most talented Ottoman slaves rose to the top of bureaucracy, where they
might get wealth and power
o
Less fortunate would join sultan’s army: Janissary corps
o
Highly organized and efficient troops gave Ottomans advantage in war
with western Europeans
o
Service in janissary corps had become so prestigious that sultan ceased
recruitment by force, and it became a volunteer for Christians and Muslims
·
Ottomans divided subjects into religious communities, each
millet/nation
o
Enjoyed autonomous self-government under its religious leaders
o
Religiously tolerant, but was an explicitly Islamic state
o
Millet system created powerful bond between Ottoman ruling class and
religious leaders, who supported sultans rule for authority over their
community
o
Each millet collected taxes for state, regulated group behavior,
maintained law courts, schools, houses of worship, hospitals
·
Istanbul was capital of empire
o
Old palace for sultan’s female family who lived in isolation
o
Topkapi palace for officials to work and where young slaves trained for
future administrative or military careers
·
Sultans married women of highest social standing, while keeping many
concubines of lower rank
·
To prevent elite families who married into the sultan from getting
influence over gov, he had children with only the concubines, not official wife
o
Policy for each concubine to produce only one male heir
o
Each son went to govern a province of the empire accompanied by his
mother
o
Stabilized power and prevented a recurrence of civil wars
·
Sultan Suleiman married concubine, Hurrem, and had several children
with her
o
Established a wing in the Topkapi palace for Hurrem, his female family,
and his brothers’ families
o
Imperial wives began to take on more power after Suleiman
·
Marriages were arranged between sultans’ daughters and high ranking
servants, to create powerful new members of the imperial household
·
Sultan’s exclusive authority waned in favor of a more bureaucratic
administration
Alternatives to Absolutism in England and the Dutch Republic
·
England and Holland evolved towards constitutionalism
o
Limitation of gov by law
o
Balance between authority and power of gov, and rights and liberties of
the subjects
o
All constitutionalist gov have a constitution, written or unwritten
§ In one document amended occasionally
§ Partly formalized, include
parliamentary statutes, judicial decisions, body of traditional procedures and
practices – English and Dutch
·
English and Dutch Republic represented different alternatives to
absolute rule
·
English
o
After decades of war, and trying out republicanism, English opted for
constitutional monarchy
o
Retained monarch as titular head of gov, but vested sovereignty in an
elected parliament
·
Dutch
o
Gained independence from Spain
o
Rejected monarchial rule, opted for a republican form of gov, which
elected estates held supreme power
·
Neither was democratic, but other Europeans thought of them as
restraint of arbitrary power and the rule of law
Absolutist Claims in England
·
Queen Elizabeth had much personal power
o
But English monarchy was severely circumscribed
o
Elizabeth was able to maintain control over her realm partially by
refusing to marry/submit to a husband
o
Hugely popular with her people
o
No heir
·
James Stuart: Elizabeth I’s Scottish cousin
o
Well educated
o
Had 35 years of experience as King of Scotland
o
Not interested in displaying majesty of monarchy as Elizabeth had been
o
Had absolutist beliefs that monarch was divinely appointed and
responsible to God
§ Counter to long-standing
English idea that a person’s property could not be taken away without process
of law
·
James’s son Charles I considered constraints intolerable and a threat
to their divine right
·
Bitter squabbles at every Parliament erupted between the Crown and
Commons
·
Charles I’s attempt to govern without Parliament and to finance his gov
by emergency taxes led country into a crisis
Religious Divides and the English Civil War
·
Religious issues embittered relations between king and House and
Commons
·
English ppl felt dissatisfied with Church of England
·
Puritans wanted to “purify” the Anglican Church of Roman Catholic
elements
·
James I responded with a no
o
Bishops were some of the chief supporters of the throne
·
Charles I, successor, antagonized religious sentiments
o
Married Catholic Princess
o
Supported policies of Archbishop of Canterbury William Laud
§ Attempted to impose new
prayer book modeled on Anglican Book of Common Prayer
§ Attempted to impose
bishoprics
·
Presbyterian Scots rejected these elements and revolted
·
To finance an army, King Charles I had to summon Parliament
·
Charles had ruled without Parliament, financing gov through stopgap
levies considered illegal to many English
o
Levied “ship money” on inland and coastal countries
·
Most in Parliament thought taxation without consent was despotism
·
Not willing to trust king with an army
·
Supported Scots’ resistance to Charles
·
Long Parliament (sat from 1640-1660)
o
Enacted legislation that limited power of the monarch and made gov
without Parliament impossible
§ Triennial Act
·
King had to summon Parliament every 3 years
§ Impeached Laud
§ Threatened to abolish
bishops
·
Charles I reluctantly accepted these measures
·
Rebellion in Ireland, where English had exploited people
·
Catholic gentry of Ireland led an uprising in response to feared
invasion by anti-Catholic forces of Long Parliament
·
Without army, Charles I left London for north England
·
Recruited an army drawn from nobility, rural gentry, and mercenaries
·
Parliament created its own New Model Army composed of the militia of
the city of London and country squires with business connections
·
Both sides prepared for war
·
Skirmish between royal and parliamentary forces in Manchester
·
English Civil war (1642-1649)
o
Pitted power of king against Parliament’s power
o
Parliament’s New Model army defeated the king’s armies at the Battles
of Naseby and Langport in Summer 1645
·
Charles refused to concede defeat
·
Both sides jockeyed for position, waiting for a decisive event
·
Under Oliver Cromwell, a member of the House of Commons and a devout
Puritan, the army forces captured the king and dismissed members of Parliament
who opposed him
·
Rump Parliament put Charles on for high treason
·
Charles found guilty and beheaded in January 1649
·
Shock waves sent around Europe
Cromwell and Puritanical Absolutism in England
·
Kingship was abolished after Charles I’s execution
·
How would the country be governed?
·
Thomas Hobbes
o
Pessimistic view of human nature
o
Humans would compete violently for power and wealth naturally
o
Only solution, in Leviathan (his book), was a gov where members of society placed themselves under
the absolute rule of a monarch, who’d maintain peace and order
o
Society as a human body which the monarch is a head and individual
subjects made up the body
o
Body cannot sever its own head
o
Society couldn’t, after accepting the contract, rise against its king
o
Denied right of rebellion
·
His ideas not shared in England
·
Republican gov was proclaimed
o
Legislative power rested in surviving members of Parliament
o
Executive power was in council of state
o
Actually, army that defeated king controlled government, and Oliver
Cromwell controlled the army
o
Protectorate: Rule of Cromwell – military dictatorship
·
Army prepared a constitution: Instrument of Government
o
Executive power in lord protector (Cromwell) and council of state
o
Triennial parliaments
o
Gave Parliament power to raise taxes
o
Cromwell dismissed Parliament after disputes
·
Cromwell continued the standing army and proclaimed quasi-martial law
·
Divided England into 12 military districts, each governed by a major
general
·
Cromwell favored some degree of religious toleration
o
Instrument of Government gave all Christians except Roman Catholics the
right to practice their faith
·
Led army to reconquer Ireland (thought it was associated with sedition
and heresy)
o
Forces crushed rebellion at Drogheda and massacred the garrison
·
English banned Catholicism in Ireland, executed priests, confiscated
land for English and Scottish
·
Fueled Irish hatred for England
·
Cromwell adopted mercantilist policies similar to France’s
o
Enforced Navigation Act
§ Requires English goods be
transported on English ships
§ Boost to development of
English merchant marine and brought successful war with Dutch
·
Welcomed immigration of Jews because of their skills and they began to
return
·
Protectorate collapsed when Cromwell died in 1658 and his ineffectual
son succeeded him
·
English fed up with military rule
·
Longed for a return to civilian government and common law and social
stability
·
Wanted to restore monarchy
Restoration of the English Monarchy
·
Charles II, eldest son of Charles I assumed the throne
·
Both houses of Parliament were restored with Anglican church
·
Test Act
o
Those outside the Church of England were denied right to vote, hold
public office, preach, teach, attend universities, assemble for meetings
o
Restrictions couldn’t be enforced
·
Charles II was determined to work with Parliament to avoid exile
o
Found Parliament didn’t give him enough income, Charles entered secret
agreement with Louis XIV
§ Louis XIV would give Charles
200,000 pounds annuals if Charles would relax laws against Catholics, and
gradually re-Catholicize England and convert to Catholicism himself
o
Details of treaty broke out and anti-Catholicism swept country
·
James II succeeded his brother
·
Violated Test Act
o
Appointed Roman Catholics to positions in the army, universities, local
gov
o
Actions challenged in courts
o
Judges, who James appointed, decided to agree with king
o
King was suspending law at will and appeared to be reviving absolutist
of Charles I and James I
o
James granted religious freedom
·
Eminent persons in Parliament and Church of England offered English
throne to James II’s Protestant daughter Mary and her Dutch husband, Prince
William of Orange
·
James II fled to France and became pensioners of Louis XIV
·
William and Mary were crowned King and Queen of England
Constitutional Monarchy and Cabinet Government
·
Glorious Revolution
o
Replaced one king with
another with minimum blodsheed
o
Destruction of ideas of divine right monarchy
§ William and Mary accepted English
throne from Parliament, and recognized supremacy of Parliament
·
Sovereignity was divided between king and Parliament, and king ruled
with the consent of the governed
·
Men framed intentions in the Bill of Rights
o
Direct response to Stuart Absolutism
o
Law was to be made in Parliament, once made it couldn’t be suspended by
the Crown
o
Parliament had to be called at least once eveyry 3 years
o
Independence of judiciary was established, there was to be no standing
army in peacetime
o
Protestants could possess arms, but the Catholic minority could not
o
No Catholic could ever inherit the throne
·
Glorious Revolution and representative government found its best
defense in Locke’s Second Treatise of Civil Government
o
Government that oversteps protecting natural rights of life, liberty,
and property becomes a tyranny
o
Natural rights basic to all men
o
People have right to rebel under tyranny
o
Justified limiting vote to property owners
·
Glorious Revolution did not constitute a democratic revolution
o
Revolution placed sovereignty in Parliament
o
Parliament represented upper class
o
Age of aristocratic government lasted
·
18th c: Cabinet system of gov evolved
o
Small private room where English rulers consulted their chief ministers
o
Leading ministers: House of Commons create common policy and conduct
business of the country
·
Sir Robert Walpole developed idea that cabinet was responsible to the
House of Commons
·
King George I presided at cabinet meetings, but George II discontinued
the practice
·
Influence of Crown in decision making declined
·
Walpole had favor of monarchy and House of Commons became the king’s
prime minister
·
Legislative and executive power are help by leading ministers who form
government
·
England’s experience with republicanism under Cromwell convinced its
people the advantages of a monarchy with strong checks of royal authority
·
David Hume: philosopher declared that he would prefer England to be
peaceful under and absolute monarch than in constant civil was as a republic
The Dutch Republic in the Seventeenth Century
·
Independence of Republic of United Provinces of the Netherlands was recognized
in 1648 in the treaty that ended the 30YW
·
This period is often called the “golden age of the Netherlands”
·
Dutch ideas and attitudes played a profound role in shaping a new and
modern worldview
·
United Provinces developed its own distinctive model of
constitutionalist state
·
Dutch rejected rule of monarch
·
Established a republic
o
Power vested in hands of people through elected representatives
·
Oligarchy of wealthy businessmen called “regents” handled domestic
affairs in each province’s Estates (assemblies)
·
Provincial Estates held virtually all the power
·
Federal assembly, or States General handled foreign affairs and war,
but did not possess sovereign authority
·
All issues had to be referred back tot eh local Estates for approval,
each of the 7 estates could veto any proposed legislation
·
Holland, which had largest navy and most wealth, usually dominated the
republic and States General
·
In each province, the Estates appointed an executive officer, the
stadholder, who carried out ceremonial functions and was responsible for
military defense
·
The reigning price of Orange usually held the office of stadholder in
several provinces of the Republic
·
Tensions always lingred between supporters of the House of Orange and
those of republican Estates, who suspected princes of trying to be a monarch
·
William III took English throne with wife Mary, republic continued
without stadholders
·
Political success of Dutch rested on phenomenal commercial prosperity
o
Thrift, frugality, religious toleration
o
Jews were allowed level of acceptance and assimilation in Dutch
business
o
Toleration paid off: attracted great deal of foreign capital and
investment
·
Dutch came to dominate shipping business by putting profits from their
original industry – herring fishing – into shipbuilding
o
Lowest shipping rates
o
Largest merchant marine in Europe
o
Undersell foreign competitors
·
Trade and commerce gave Dutch highest standard of living in Europe
o
Salaries high, all classes of society ate well
o
Very few food riots
Baroque Art and Music
·
Baroque: From Portuguese “odd shaped, imperfect pearls”, expression of
scorn for unbalanced style
·
Rome and revitalized Catholic Church of later 16th century
was important role in development of Baroque
·
Papacy and Jesuits encouraged growth of emotional, exuberant art
·
Patrons wanted artist to go beyond REN on a provincial art, wanted to
appeal to sense and touch souls of ordinary churchgoers while proclaiming power
of reformed Catholic Church
·
Drama, motion, ceaseless striving from Catholic Reformation
·
Baroque style developed with exceptional vigor in Catholic countries –
Spain, Latin America, Austria, southern Germany, Poland
·
More than just a Catholic Art
o
Protestants had examples of fine art and music
·
Baroque style spread because it spoke to an agitated age of controversy
in politics and religion
·
Baroque style reached maturity early on
·
Peter Paul Rubens
o
Most outstanding and representative of barosque painters
o
Studied in Flanders and influenced by High REN artists
o
Developed his own rich, colorful style characterized by animated
figures, contrast, monumental size
o
Glorified monarchs
o
Devout Catholic
o
Fleshy, sensual nudes
·
Johann Sebastian Bach
o
Could write secular and religious music
o
Invention, tension, emotion of baroque spirit
o
Striving towards infinite
o
Not fully appreciated in his lifetime
This is the best! Super helpful for my Absolutism test tomorrow in AP Euro! Thank you so much!
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